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(Kinnaird Resurrection) by, 1502The resurrection of Jesus, or anastasis is the belief that raised after as, starting his exalted life as Christ and Lord. In, the death and resurrection of Jesus are the most important events, a foundation of the Christian faith, and commemorated. His resurrection is the guarantee that all the Christian dead will be resurrected at Christ's. For the Christian tradition, the bodily resurrection was the restoration to life of a powered by, as described by Paul and the Gospels, that led to the establishment of Christianity.In secular and liberal Christian scholarship, the appearances of Jesus are explained as that gave the impetus to the belief in the exaltation of Jesus and a resumption of the missionary activity of Jesus' followers. Main article:The Greeks held that a meritorious man could be resurrected as a god (the process of apotheosis), and the successors of made this idea very well known throughout the Middle East through coins bearing his image, a privilege previously reserved for gods. The idea was adopted by the Roman emperors, and in the Imperial Roman concept of apotheosis, the earthly body of the recently deceased emperor was replaced by a new and divine one as he ascended into heaven. The apotheosised dead remained recognisable to those who met them, as when appeared to witnesses after his death, but as the biographer (c.
AD 46–120) explained of this incident, while something within humans comes from the gods and returns to them after death, this happens 'only when it is most completely separated and set free from the body, and becomes altogether pure, fleshless, and undefiled'. See also:All four gospels climax with appearances of Jesus after his crucifixion, preparing the reader for his resurrection by having Jesus predict it, or through allusions that only the reader will understand, and elsewhere). The moment of resurrection is not described.Jesus is the 'firstborn of the dead,' prōtotokos, the first to be raised from the dead, and thereby acquiring the 'special status of the firstborn as the preeminent son and heir.'
His resurrection is also the guarantee that all the Christian dead will be resurrected at Christ's.After his resurrection, Jesus starts proclaiming ' through the disciples , and subsequently calls the apostles to the, as described in, and, in which the disciples receive the call 'to let the world know the good news of a victorious Saviour and the very presence of God in the world by the spirit.' Jesus says that they 'will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you', that 'repentance and forgiveness of sins is to be proclaimed in the Messiah's name to all nations, beginning from Jerusalem', and that 'if you forgive the sins of any, they are forgiven them; if you retain the sins of any, they are retained'.The, written c. 65–75, ends with the discovery of the empty tomb by Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, and Salome. An angel announces to them that Jesus has risen, and instructs them to 'tell Peter and the disciples that he will meet them in Galilee, 'just as he told you'; yet, Mary does not do so. There are no appearances, but the author does seem to know of the appearances claimed for Peter and the Twelve. The, Mark 16:9–20, written c. 2nd century and similar to Luke and John, says that Jesus first appeared to Mary Magdalene, then to two followers walking outside Jerusalem, and then to the eleven remaining Apostles, them to spread 'the good news': 'The one who believes and is baptized will be saved; but the one who does not believe will be condemned.'
In Matthew, Luke and John, the resurrection announcement is followed by appearances of Jesus to Mary Magdalene and other followers. The Book of Matthew describes a single appearance in Galilee, Luke describes several appearances in Jerusalem, John mentions appearances in both Jerusalem and Galilee.
At some point, these appearances ceased in the early Christian community, as reflected in the Gospel-narratives: the 'Acts of the Apostles' says that 'for forty days he had continued to appear to them'. The Book of Luke describes Jesus ascending to heaven at a location near Bethany.In the, an angel appears to Mary Magdalene at the empty tomb, telling her that Jesus is not there because he's been raised from the dead, and instructing her to tell the other followers to go to Galilee, to meet Jesus.
Jesus then appears to and 'the other Mary' at the tomb; and next, based on Mark 16:7, Jesus appears to all the disciples on a mountain in Galilee, where Jesus claims authority over heaven and earth, and commissions the disciples to preach the gospel to the whole world. Matthew presents Jesus's second appearance as an (deification), commissioning his followers to 'make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, 20 and teaching them to obey everything that I have commanded you.' In this message, the end-times are delayed, 'to bring the world to discipleship.' In the, 'the woman who had come with him from Galilee' come to his tomb, which they find empty. Two angelic beings appear to announce that Jesus is not there, but has been raised. Jesus then appears to two followers on their way to Emmaus, who notify the eleven remaining Apostles, who respond that Jesus has appeared to Peter. While telling this, Jesus appears again, explaining that he is the messiah who raised from the dead according to the scriptures, 'and that repentance and forgiveness of sins is to be proclaimed in his name to all nations, beginning from Jerusalem.'
In (two works from the same author) he then, his rightful home.In the, Mary Magdalene finds the tomb empty, and informs Peter. She then sees two angels, after which Jesus himself appears to her. In the evening, Jesus appears to the other followers, followed by another appearance a week later. He later appears in Galilee to Peter, Tomas, and two other followers, commanding Peter to take care of his sheep.In Acts of the Apostles, Jesus appears to apostles for forty days, and commands them to stay in Jerusalem whereafter Jesus, followed by the coming of the Holy Spirit at, and the missionary task of the early church. Main article:The historicity and origin of the resurrection of Jesus has been the subject of historical research and debate, as well as a topic of discussion among theologians. The accounts of the Gospels, including the and the to his followers, have been interpreted and analyzed in diverse ways, and have been seen variously as historical accounts of a literal event, as accurate accounts of, as non-literal parables, and as fabrications of early Christian writers, among various other interpretations.
One hypothesis, for example, that Jesus, that the empty tomb was the result of, or, as was common with Roman crucifixions, that Jesus was never entombed.Post- historians work with, and therefore reject miracles as objective historical facts. Physical or spiritual resurrection Paul and the GospelsBoth Ware and Cook argue, primarily from Paul's terminology and the contemporary Jewish, pagan and cultural understanding of the nature of resurrection, that Paul held to a physically resurrected body ( sōma), restored to life, but animated by spirit ( ) instead of soul ( ), just like the later Gospel accounts. The nature of this resurrected body is a matter of debate. In, Paul uses the phrase 'spiritual body' ( sōma pneumatikos ), which has been explained as a 'Spirit-empowered body,' but also as a 'celestial body,' made of a finer material than the flesh.
In the Paul describes how the body of the resurrected Christ is utterly different to the one he wore when he had 'the appearance of a man,' and holds out a similar glorified state, when Christ 'will transform our lowly body,' as the goal of the Christian life – 'flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God' (I Corinthians 15:50), and Christians entering the kingdom will be 'putting off the body of the flesh' (Colossians 2:11). Paul opposed the notion of a purely spiritual resurrection, as propagated by some Christians in Corinth, which he addresses in 1 Corinthians. The developing Gospel-tradition emphasized the material aspects to counter this spiritual interpretation.Paul's views of a bodily resurrection went against the thoughts of the Greek philosophers to whom a bodily resurrection meant a new imprisonment in a corporeal body, which was what they wanted to avoid – given that for them the corporeal and the material fettered the spirit.Dunn notes that there is a great difference between Paul's resurrection appearance, and the appearances described in the Gospels. Where 'Paul's seeing was visionary., 'from heaven',' in contrast, the Gospel-accounts have a 'massive realism' to them. Dunn contends that the 'massive realism'. of the Gospel appearances themselves can only be described as visionary with great difficulty – and Luke would certainly reject the description as inappropriate.' According to Dunn, most scholars explain this as a 'legendary materialization' of the visionary experiences, 'borrowing the traits of the earthly Jesus.'
Yet, according to Dunn, there was both 'a tendency away from the physical. and a reverse tendency towards the physical.' The tendency towards the material is most clear, but there are also signs for the tendency away from the physical, and 'there are some indications that a more physical understanding was current in the earliest Jerusalem community.' The empty tomb. Main article:The empty tomb and the post-resurrection appearances are never directly coordinated to form a combined argument. While the coherence of the empty tomb-narrative is questionable, it is 'clearly an early tradition.'
Vermes rejects the literal interpretation of the story, as being proof of the resurrection, and also notes that the story of the empty tomb conflicts with notions of a spiritual resurrection. According to Vermes, 'the strictly Jewish bond of spirit and body is better served by the idea of the empty tomb and is no doubt responsible for the introduction of the notions of palpability (Thomas in John) and eating (Luke and John).' According to, the body of Jesus was buried in a new tomb by in accordance with, which stated that a person hanged on a tree must not be allowed to remain there at night, but should be buried before sundown. New Testament historian dismisses the story of the empty tomb; according to Ehrman, 'an empty tomb had nothing to do with it. an empty tomb would not produce faith.' According to Ehrman, the empty tomb was needed to underscore the physical resurrection of Jesus, but is it doubtful that Jesus was buried by Joseph of Arimathea.
It is unlikely that a member of the Sanhedrin would have buried Jesus; crucifixion was meant 'to torture and humiliate a person as fully as possible,' and the body was left on the stake to be eaten by animals; criminals were usually buried in common graves; and Pilate had no concern for Jewish sensitivities, which makes it unlikely that he would have allowed for Jesus to be buried. The English theologian and historian, however, emphatically and extensively argues for the reality of the empty tomb and the subsequent appearances of Jesus, reasoning that as a matter of history both a bodily resurrection and later bodily appearances of Jesus are far better explanations for the rise of Christianity than are any other theories, including those of Ehrman. See also:, and Christ–devotionThe New Testament writings contend that the resurrection was 'the beginning of His exalted life' as Christ and Lord. Jesus is the ' of the dead,' prōtotokos, the first to be raised from the dead, and thereby acquiring the 'special status of the firstborn as the preeminent son and heir.' According to Beale,'Firstborn' refers to the high, privileged position that Christ has as a result of the resurrection from the dead.
Christ has gained such a sovereign position over the cosmos, not in the sense that he is recognized as the first-created being of all creation or as the origin of creation, but in the sense that he is the inaugurator of the new creation by means of his resurrection.Hurtado notes that soon after his death, Jesus was called Lord ( ), which 'associates him in astonishing ways with God.' The term Lord reflected the belief that God had exalted to a divine status 'at God's 'right hand'.' The worship of God as expressed in the phrase 'call upon the name of the Lord Yahweh' was also applied to Jesus, invocating his name 'in corporate worship and in the wider devotional pattern of Christian believers (e.g., baptism, exorcism, healing).' According to Hurtado, powerful were an indispensable factor in the emergence of Christ-devotion. Those experiences 'seem to have included visions of (and/or ascents to) God's heaven, in which the glorified Christ was seen in an exalted position.'
Those experiences were interpreted in the framework of God's redemptive purposes, as reflected in the scriptures, in a 'dynamic interaction between devout, prayerful searching for, and pondering over, scriptural texts and continuing powerful religious experiences.' This initiated a 'new devotional pattern unprecedented in Jewish monotheism,' that is, the worship of Jesus next to God, giving Jesus a central place because his ministry, and its consequences, had a strong impact on his early followers. Revelations, including those visions, but also inspired and spontaneous utterances, and 'charismatic exegesis' of the Jewish scriptures, convinced them that this devotion was commanded by God.Ehrman notes that both Jesus and his early followers were, who believed in the bodily resurrection, which would start when the coming of God's Kingdom was near.
According to Ehrman, 'the disciples' belief in the resurrection was based on visionary experiences,' arguing that visions usually have a strong persuasive power, but also noting that the Gospel-accounts record a tradition of doubt about the appearances of Jesus. Ehrman's 'tentative suggestion' is that only a few followers had visions, including Peter, Paul and Mary. They told others about those visions, convincing most of their close associates that Jesus was raised from the dead, but not all of them. Eventually, these stories were retold and embellished, leading to the story that all disciples had seen the risen Jesus. The belief in Jesus' resurrection radically changed their perceptions, concluding from his absence that he must have been exalted to heaven, by God himself, exalting him to an unprecedented status and authority.
Low and High Christology. See also:It has long been argued that the New Testament writings contain two different Christologies, namely a 'low' or Christology, and a 'high' or 'incarnation Christology.' The 'low Christology' or ' Christology' is the belief 'that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead,' thereby raising him to 'divine status.' The other early Christology is 'high Christology,' which is 'the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father’s will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come,' and from where he. The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship.According to the 'evolutionary model' c.q.
'evolutionary theories,' as proposed by Bousset, followed by Brown, the Christological understanding of Christ developed over time, from a low Christology to a high Christology, as witnessed in the Gospels. According to the evolutionary model, the earliest Christians believed that Jesus was a human who was exalted, c.q.
As God's Son, when he was resurrected, signaling the nearness of the, when all dead would be resurrected and the righteous exalted. Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his eternal existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John. Mark shifted the moment of when Jesus became the son to the, and later still Matthew and Luke shifted it to the moment of the, and finally John declared that Jesus had been with God from the beginning: 'In the beginning was the Word'.Since the 1970s, the late datings for the development of a 'high Christology' have been contested, and a majority of scholars argue that this 'High Christology' existed already before the writings of Paul. This 'incarnation Christology' or 'high Christology' did not evolve over a longer time, but was a 'big bang' of ideas which were already present at the start of Christianity, and took further shape in the first few decades of the church, as witnessed in the writings of Paul.According to Ehrman, these two Christologies existed alongside each other, calling the 'low Christology' an ' Christology, and 'the 'high Christology' an 'incarnation Christology.' While adoptionism was declared at the end of the 2nd century, it was adhered to by the, who regarded Jesus as the Messiah while rejecting his and his, and insisted on the necessity of following.
They revered (James the Just); and rejected as an. They show strong similarities with the earliest form of Jewish Christianity, and their specific theology may have been a 'reaction to the.' Redemptive death. See also:Jesus' death was interpreted as a redemptive death 'for our sins,' in accordance with God's plan as contained in the Jewish scriptures. The significance lay in 'the theme of divine necessity and fulfillment of the scriptures,' not in the later Pauline emphasis on 'Jesus' death as a sacrifice or an expiation for our sins.' For the early Jewish Christians, 'the idea that Messiah's death was a necessary redemptive event functioned more as an apologetic explanation for Jesus' crucifixion' 'proving that Jesus' death was no surprise to God.' Call to missionary activity.
Main articles:, andAccording to Dunn, the appearances to the disciples have 'a sense of obligation to make the vision known.' States that the stories of the resurrection were originally in which the disciples were by the risen Jesus, and at a secondary stage were interpreted as physical proof of the event. He contends that the more detailed accounts of the resurrection are also secondary and do not come from historically trustworthy sources, but instead belong to the genre of the narrative types. Biblical scholar argues that the resurrection is to be understood as a reviving of the self-confidence of the followers of Jesus, under the influence of the Spirit, 'prompting them to resume their apostolic mission.' They felt the presence of Jesus in their own actions, 'rising again, today and tomorrow, in the hearts of the men who love him and feel he is near.' According to, Peter convinced the other disciples that the resurrection of Jesus signaled that the end-times were near and God's Kingdom was coming, when the dead who would rise again, as evidenced by Jesus.
This revitalized the disciples, starting-off their new mission. Leadership of Peter. Main article:The appearance of Jesus to Paul convinced him that Jesus was the risen Lord and Christ, who commissioned him to be an apostle to the Gentiles. According to Newbigin, 'Paul presents himself not as the teacher of a new theology but as the messenger commissioned by the authority of the Lord himself to announce a new fact - namely that in the ministry, death and resurrection of Jesus God has acted decisively to reveal and effect his purpose of redemption for the whole world.' The teachings of the apostle Paul form a key element of the Christian tradition and theology. Fundamental to Pauline theology is the connection between Christ's resurrection,.
In, Paul writes:If there is no resurrection of the dead, then Christ has not been raised; if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is in vain and your faith is in vain. If Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile.
But Christ really has been raised from the dead. He is the first of all those who will rise. Death came because of what a man did. Rising from the dead also comes because of what a man did. Because of Adam, all people die. So because of Christ, all will be made alive.The of 1 Corinthians 15:3 states that 'Christ died for our sins.'
The meaning of that kerygma is a matter of debate, and open to multiple interpretations. Traditionally, this kerygma is interpreted as meaning that Jesus' death was an atonement or ransom for, or propitiation or expiation of, God's wrath against humanity because of their sins. With Jesus death, humanity was freed from this wrath. In the classical Protestant understanding, which has dominated the understanding o Paul's writings, humans partake in this salvation by faith in Jesus Christ; this faith is a grace given by God, and people are justified by God through Jesus Christ and faith in Him.More recent scholarship has raised several concerns regarding these interpretations. According to, who initiated the so-called, Paul saw the faithful redeemed by participation in Jesus' death and rising.
Though 'Jesus’ death substituted for that of others and thereby freed believers from sin and guilt,' a metaphor derived from 'ancient theology,' the essence of Paul's writing is not in the 'legal terms' regarding the expiation of sin, but the act of 'participation in Christ through.' According to Sanders, 'those who are baptized into Christ are baptized into his death, and thus they escape the power of sin.
he died so that the believers may die with him and consequently live with him.' Just as Christians share in Jesus' death in baptism, so they will share in his resurrection. McGrath notes that Paul 'prefers to use the language of participation. One died for all, so that all died.
This is not only different from, it is the opposite of it.' Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God; according to Sanders, this insistence is in line with Judaism of ca. 200 BC until 200 AD, which saw God's covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God. Observance of the Law is needed to maintain the covenant, but the covenant is not earned by observing the Law, but by the grace of God. Church Fathers – atonement. Main article:The, discussed the death and resurrection of Jesus, including (50–115), (69–155), and (100–165). The understanding of the of the death and resurrection of Jesus as an atonement is the 'classic paradigm' of the, who developed the themes found in the New Testament.During the first millennium AD, the ransom theory of atonement was the dominant metaphor, both in eastern and western Christianity, until it was replaced in the west by Anselmus' satisfaction theory of atonement.
The ransom theory of atonement says that Christ liberated humanity from slavery to sin and, and thus death, by giving his own life as a to Satan, swapping the life of the perfect (Jesus), for the lives of the imperfect (humans). It entails the idea that God deceived the devil, and that Satan, or death, had 'legitimate rights' over sinful in the, due to the fall of man and.The ransom theory was first clearly enunciated by (c. 202), who was an outspoken critic of, but borrowed ideas from their dualistic worldview. In this worldview, humankind is under the power of the, a lesser God who has created the world. Yet, humans have a spark of the true divine nature within them, which can be liberated by (knowledge) of this divine spark. This knowledge is revealed by the, 'the very mind of the supreme God,' who entered the world in the person of Jesus. Nevertheless, the Logos could not simply undo the power of the Demiurg, and had to hide his real identity, appearing as a physical form, thereby misleading the Demiurg, and liberating humankind.
In Irenaeus' writings, the Demiurge is replaced by the devil, while had already equated Jesus and the Logos.(184–253) introduced the idea that the devil held legitimate rights over humans, who were bought free by the blood of Christ. He also introduced the notion that the devil was deceived in thinking that he could master the human soul. Late Antiquity and early Middle AgesFollowing the and the in 313, the of the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, that focused on, helped shape the Christian understanding of the redemptive nature of resurrection, and influenced both the development of its iconography, and its use within Liturgy.Belief in bodily resurrection was a constant note of the Christian church in antiquity. Accepted it at the time of his conversion in 386. Augustine defended resurrection, and argued that given that Christ has risen, there is resurrection of the dead. Moreover, he argued that the death and resurrection of Jesus was for the salvation of man, stating: 'to achieve each resurrection of ours, the savior paid with his single life, and he pre-enacted and presented his one and only one by way of sacrament and by way of model.' The 5th-century theology of provides an insight into the development of the Christian understanding of the redemptive nature of resurrection.
The crucial role of the sacraments in the mediation of salvation was well accepted at the time. In Theodore's representation of the, the sacrificial and salvific elements are combined in the 'One who saved us and delivered us by the sacrifice of Himself'. Theodore's interpretation of the Eucharistic rite is directed towards the triumph over the power of death brought about by the resurrection.The emphasis on the salvific nature of the resurrection continued in Christian theology in the next centuries, e.g., in the 8th century Saint wrote that: '. When he had freed those who were bound from the beginning of time, Christ returned again from among the dead, having opened for us the way to resurrection' and Christian iconography of the ensuing years represented that concept.
Present-dayLorenzen finds 'a strange silence about the resurrection in many pulpits'. He writes that among some Christians, ministers and professors, it seems to have become 'a cause for embarrassment or the topic of apologetics'. According to Warnock, many Christians neglect the resurrection because of their understandable preoccupation with the Cross. Main article:Easter is the preeminent Christian feast that celebrates the resurrection of Jesus, and, according to Susan J.
White, 'is clearly the earliest Christian festival.' According to Dunn, 'In Easter we celebrate man become God. that in the death and resurrection of Christ God has broken the stranglehold of human selfishness, has proved the enduring and conquering strength of divine love.' According to Thorwald Lorenzen, the first Easter led to a shift in emphasis from faith 'in God' to faith 'in Christ'. According to Raymond Harfgus Taylor, 'focuses upon the consumation of the of God in the death/resurrection of Jesus Christ.'
Easter is linked to the and recorded in the through the and that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as he for his death in the during the Last Supper. He identified the loaf of bread and cup of wine as soon to be sacrificed and soon to be shed.
States, 'Get rid of the old yeast that you may be a new batch without yeast – as you really are. For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed'; this refers to the Passover requirement to have no yeast in the house and to the allegory of Jesus as the. The with a wreath symbolizing the victory of the Resurrection, above Roman soldiers, c. 350 AD.In the, artists indirectly hinted at the resurrection by using images from the Old Testament such as the fiery furnace and Daniel in the Lion's den.
Depictions prior to the 7th century generally showed secondary events such as the at the tomb of Jesus to convey the concept of the resurrection. An early symbol of the resurrection was the wreathed (Greek letters representing the word 'Khristos' or 'Christ'), whose origin traces to the victory of at the in 312, which he attributed to the use of a cross on the shields of his soldiers. Constantine used the Chi Rho on his standard and his coins showed a with the Chi Rho killing a serpent.The use of a wreath around the Chi Rho symbolizes the victory of the resurrection over death, and is an early visual representation of the connection between the and his triumphal resurrection, as seen in the 4th-century sarcophagus of Domitilla in Rome. Here, in the wreathed Chi Rho the death and Resurrection of Christ are shown as inseparable, and the Resurrection is not merely a happy ending tucked at the end of the life of Christ on earth. Given the use of similar symbols on the, this depiction also conveyed another victory, namely that of the Christian faith: the Roman soldiers who had once arrested Jesus and marched him to now walked under the banner of a resurrected Christ.The cosmic significance of the resurrection in Western theology goes back to, who in the 4th century said that 'The universe rose again in Him, the heaven rose again in Him, the earth rose again in Him, for there shall be a new heaven and a new earth'. This theme developed gradually in the West, later than in the East where the resurrection had been linked from an earlier date to redemption and the renewal and rebirth of the whole world.
In art this was symbolized by combining the depictions of the resurrection with the in icons and paintings. A good example is from the in Istanbul, where, and other figures are also present, depicting that Christ was not alone in the resurrection. The depiction sequence at the 10th-century shows Christ as he pulls Adam from his tomb, followed by Eve, signifying the salvation of humanity after the resurrection. Gallery of art For a larger gallery, please see:. Main articles:, andThe resurrection of Jesus has long been central to Christian faith and appears within diverse elements of the Christian tradition, from feasts to artistic depictions to religious relics. In Christian teachings, the sacraments derive their saving power from the passion and resurrection of Christ, upon which the salvation of the world entirely depends.An example of the interweaving of the teachings on the resurrection with Christian relics is the application of the concept of ' at the moment of resurrection to the.
Christian authors have stated the belief that the body around whom the shroud was wrapped was not merely human, but divine, and that the image on the shroud was miraculously produced at the moment of resurrection. Quoting 's statement that the shroud is 'the wonderful document of His Passion, Death and Resurrection, written for us in letters of blood' author Antonio Cassanelli argues that the shroud is a deliberate divine record of the five stages of the Passion of Christ, created at the moment of resurrection. Further information:in the 1st century AD, and the two faiths have differed in their theology since. According to the, the body of Jesus was in the same night by a gardener named Juda, after hearing the disciples planned to steal the body of Jesus. However, Toledot Yeshu is not considered either canonical or normative within. Van Voorst states that Toledot Yeshu is a medieval document set without a fixed form which is 'most unlikely' to have reliable information about Jesus.
The Blackwell Companion to Jesus states that the Toledot Yeshu has no historical facts as such, and was perhaps created as a tool for warding off conversions to Christianity. ^ Justin Holcomb,. ^ Habermas (2005),. ^ James F. McGrath (2007),. ^ Larry Hurtado (September 11, 2014 ),.
^ Taylor S. Brown (august3, 2018),.
John Ankerberg and Gary Habermas (2000),. ^ (14 February 2013). The Bart Ehrman Blog. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
Larry Hurtado,. Bouma, Jeremy (27 March 2014). Zondervan Academic Blog. Christian Publishing. Retrieved 2 May 2018. Larry Hurtado (July 10, 2015 ),.
Bart Ehrman (5 Oct. 2012),. David G. Peterson (2009),. John B. Cobb,. ^ E.P.
Sanders,. Jewish Encyclopedia,. Jeewish Virtual Library,. Jewish Encyclopedia (1906),.
^ Jordan Cooper.